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• IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, FerroElectrics, and Frequency Control... oscillator
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• Hence, the dipole force on the | ↓ state is twice that on the | ↑ state and in the opposite direction. (This same displacement operator has been used previously to create Schrödinger cat states of a single ion (Myatt et al. 2000).) To implement this gate on two ions, the Raman transition beams were separated in frequency by 3 ω z + δ , where 3 ω z is the stretch mode frequency for two ions aligned along the z axis and δ is a small detuning ( ≪ ω z ). The separation of the ions was adjusted to be an integer multiple of 2 π / Δ k so that the optical-dipole force on each ion was in the same direction if the ions were in the same spin state but in opposite directions if the spin states was different (Eq. ( dipole_force)). This had the effect that the application of the laser beams to the | ↓ | ↑ and | ↑ | ↓ states caused excitation on the stretch mode but the motion was not excited when the ions were in the | ↓ | ↓ or | ↑ | ↑ states. The detuning δ and duration of the displacement pulses ( 2 π / δ ) were chosen to make one complete (circular) path in phase space with an area that gave a phase shift of π / 2 on the | ↓ | ↑ and | ↑ | ↓ states (Fig. Didi_gate). Under these conditions, the overall transformation was: | ↓ | ↓ → | ↓ | ↓ , | ↓ | ↑ → e i π / 2 | ↓ | ↑ , | ↑ | ↓ → e i π / 2 | ↑ | ↓ , and | ↑ | ↑ → | ↑ | ↑ = e i π e - i π | ↑ | ↑ . Therefore, this operator acts like the product of an operator that applies a π / 2 phase shift to the | ↑ state on each ion separately (a non-entangling gate) and π phase gate between the two ions. The π / 2 phase shifts can be removed by applying additional single qubit rotations or accounted for in software. (In an algorithm carried out by a series of single-qubit rotations and two-qubit phase gates, the extra phase shifts can be removed by appropriately shifting the phase of subsequent or prior single-qubit rotations.)... Schematic representation of relevant energy levels for stimulated-Raman transitions (not to scale). Shown are two ground-state hyperfine levels ( | ↓ and | ↑ ) for one ion, two (of possibly many) excited levels ( | i and | i ' ), and the harmonic oscillator levels for one mode of motion. Typically, ω z ≪ ω 0 ≪ Δ i , Δ i ' , ω F ≪ ω o p t where ω o p t is an optical frequency.... Time and Frequency Division\\National Institute of Standards and Technology\\Boulder, CO, 80305-3328, USA\\ \$\dag\$ permanent address: Institute of Physics, Belgrade, Yugoslavia ... Schematic representation of the displacements of the axial stretch-mode amplitude in phase space for the four basis states of the two spin qubits. The detuning and amplitude of the displacements are chosen to give a π / 2 phase shift on the | ↓ | ↑ and | ↑ | ↓ states while the | ↓ | ↓ and | ↑ | ↑ states are unaffected because the optical dipole forces for these states do not couple to the stretch mode.
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• In the example figure (Fig.  fig:qubosc1d2d), the control bias is varied from left to right for a low frequency oscillator circuit (1.36GHz). For each bias point the simulation is reinitialised, the stochastic time evolution of the system density matrix is simulated over 1500 oscillator cycles. Then the oscillator and qubit charge expectation values are extracted to obtain the power spectrum for each component, with a frequency resolution of 4.01MHz. The power spectra for each time series are collated as an image such that the power axis is now represented as a colour, and the individual power spectra are vertical ‘slices’ through the image. The dominant frequency peaks become line traces, therefore illustrating the various avoided crossings, mergeings and intersections. The example figure shows the PSD ‘slice’ at Bias = 0.5187 , the broadband noise is readily apparent and is due to the discontinuous quantum jumps in the qubit. The bias oscillator peak (1.36GHz) is most prominent in the oscillator PSD, as would be expected, but it is also present in the qubit PSD. It should also be noted that most features are present in both the qubit and oscillator, including the noise which is generated by the quantum jumps and the quantum state diffusion processes. Interestingly, the qubit PSD is significantly stronger than the oscillator PSD, however, a larger voltage is generated by the smaller charge due to the extremely small island capacitance, V q = q / C q .... fig:mwRamp (Color online) Oscillator PSD as a function of the applied microwave drive frequency f m w , for microwave amplitudes A m w = 0.0050 (A) and A m w = 0.0100 (B). It is important to notice that there are now two frequency axes per plot, a drive (H) and a response (V). Of particular interest is the magnified section which shows clearly the distinct secondary splitting in the sub-GHz regime. This occurs due to a high frequency interaction seen in the upper plots, where the lower Rabi sideband of the microwave drive passes through the high frequency oscillator signal. The maximum splitting occurs when the Rabi amplitude is a maximum, hence this is observed for a very particular combination of bias and drive, which is beneficial for charactering the qubit. Most importantly, this would not be observed with a conventional low frequency oscillator configuration as the f m w - f o s c separation would be too large for the Rabi frequency. ( κ = 5 × 10 -5 ).... Fig.  fig:mwRamp is presented in a similar manner as Fig.  fig:BiasRamp. However there are now two frequency axes: the horizontal axis represents the frequency of the applied microwave drive field, and the vertical axis is the frequency response. It should be remembered that the microwave frequency axis is focused near the qubit transition frequency ( f q u b i t ≈ 3.49GHz) and the diagonally increasing line is now the microwave frequency.... Autler Townes effect, charge qubit, characterisation, frequency spectrum... fig:QubitOscEnergy A two level qubit is coupled to a many level harmonic oscillator, investigated for two different oscillator energies. Firstly, the oscillator resonant frequency is set to 1.36GHz, this more resembles the conventional configuration such that the fundamental component of the oscillator does not drive the qubit. However, we also investigate the use of a high frequency oscillator of 3.06GHz which can excite this qubit. In addition, qubit is constantly driven by a microwave field at 3.49GHz to generate Rabi oscillations and in this paper we examine the relation between these three fields.... fig:qubosc1d2d (Color online) Oscillator and Qubit power spectra slices for Bias = 0.5187, using the low frequency oscillator circuit f o s c = 1.36 GHz. The solid lines overlay the energy level separations found in Fig.  fig:EnergyLevel. ( κ = 5 × 10 -5 ). As one would expect, the bias oscillator peak at 1.36GHz is clearly observed in the oscillator PSD, but only weakly in the qubit PSD. Likewise the qubit Rabi frequency is found to be stronger in the qubit PSD. However it is important to note that the qubit dynamics such as the Rabi oscillations are indeed coupled to the bias oscillator circuit and so can be extracted. In addition, it is recommended to compare the layout of the most prominent features with Fig.  fig:BiasRamp.... fig:BiasRamp (Color online) Oscillator PSD as a function of bias, for microwave amplitudes A m w = 0.0025 (A) and A m w = 0.0050 (B). The red lines track the positions (in frequency) of significant power spectrum peaks (+10dB to +15dB above background), the overlaid black and blue lines are the qubit energy and microwave transition (Fig.  fig:EnergyLevel). Unlike Fig.  fig:qubosc1d2d, in these figures the 3.06GHz oscillator circuit can now drive the qubit (Fig.  fig:EnergyLevel) and so creates excitations which mix with the microwave driven excitations creating a secondary splitting centred on f m w - f o s c (430MHz). This feature contains the Rabi frequency information in the sidebands of the splitting, but now in a different and controllable frequency regime. In addition, the intersection of the two differently driven excitations (illustrated in the magnified sections), opens the possibility of calibrating the biased qubit against a fixed engineered oscillator circuit, using a single point feature. ( κ = 5 × 10 -5 ).... In a previous paper , a method was proposed by which the energy level structure of a charge qubit can be obtained from measurements of the peak noise in the bias/control oscillator, without the need of extra readout devices. This was based on a technique originally proposed for superconducting flux qubits but there are many similarities between the two technologies. The oscillator noise peak is the result of broadband noise caused by quantum jumps in the qubit being coupled back to the oscillator circuit. This increase in the jump rate becomes a maximum when the Rabi oscillations are at peak amplitude, this should only occur when the qubit is correctly biased and the microwave drive is driving at the transition frequency. Therefore by monitoring this peak as a function of bias, we can associate a bias position with a microwave frequency equal to that of the energy gap, hence constructing the energy diagram (Fig.  fig:EnergyLevel).... fig:Jumps (Color online) (A) Oscillator power spectra when the coupled qubit is driven at f m w = 5.00 GHz. An increase in bias noise power ( f o s c = 1.36 GHz) can be observed when Rabi oscillations occur, the more frequent quantum jump noise couples back to the oscillator. (B) Bias noise power peak position changes as a function of f m w , the microwave drive frequency. Therefore, it is possible to probe the qubit energy level structure by using the power increase in the oscillator which is already in place, eliminating the need for additional measurement devices. However, it should be noted that the surrounding oscillator harmonics may mask the microwave driven peak. ( κ = 1 × 10 -3 ).
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• The first-qubit oscillation frequency f d as a function of time t (normalized by the energy relaxation time T 1 ) for C x = 0 (solid line) and C x = 6 fF (dashed line), assuming N l 1 = 1.355 and parameters of Eq. ( 2.16). Dash-dotted horizontal line, ω r 1 / 2 π = 15.3 GHz, shows the long-time limit of f d t . Two dotted horizontal lines show the plasma frequency for the second qubit: ω l 2 / 2 π = 10.2 GHz for N l 2 = 10 and ω l 2 / 2 π = 8.91 GHz for N l 2 = 5 . The arrow shows the moment t c of exact resonance in the case N l 2 = 5 .... The circuit schematic of a flux-biased phase qubit and the corresponding potential profile (as a function of the phase difference δ across the Josephson junction). During the measurement the state | 1 escapes from the “left” well through the barrier, which is followed by oscillations in the “right” well. This dissipative evolution leads to the two-qubit crosstalk.... The oscillating term in Eq. ( 3.11a) describes the beating between the oscillator and driving force frequencies, with the difference frequency increasing in time, d t ~ 2 / d t = α t - t c , and amplitude of beating decreasing as 1 / t ~ (see dashed line in Fig.  f4a). Notice that F 0 = 1 / 4 , F ∞ = 1 , and the maximum value is F 1.53 = 1.370 , so that E 0 is the long-time limit of the oscillator energy E 2 , while the maximum energy is 1.37 times larger:... The second qubit energy E 2 (in units of ℏ ω l 2 ) in the oscillator model as a function of time t (in ns) for (a) C x = 5 fF and T 1 = 25 ns and (b) C x = 2.5 fF and 5 fF and T 1 = 500 ns, while N l 2 = 5 . Dashed line in (a) shows approximation using Eq. ( 3.10). The arrows show the moment t c when the driving frequency f d (see Fig.  f3) is in resonance with ω l 2 / 2 π = 8.91 GHz.... mcd05, a short flux pulse applied to the measured qubit decreases the barrier between the two wells (see Fig.  f0), so that the upper qubit level becomes close to the barrier top. In the case when level | 1 is populated, there is a fast population transfer (tunneling) from the left well to the right well. Due to dissipation, the energy in the right well gradually decreases, until it reaches the bottom of the right well. In contrast, if the qubit is in state | 0 the tunneling essentially does not occur. The qubit state in one of the two potential minima (separated by almost Φ 0 ) is subsequently distinguished by a nearby SQUID, which completes the measurement process.... Now let us consider the effect of dissipation in the second qubit. ... Dots: Rabi frequencies R k , k - 1 / 2 π for the left-well transitions at t = t c , for N l = 10 , C x = 6 fF, and T 1 = 25 ns. Dashed line shows analytical dependence 1.1 k GHz.... 2.16 Figure f2 shows the qubit potential U δ for N l = 10 (corresponding to φ = 4.842 ), N l = 5 ( φ = 5.089 ), and N l = 1.355 ( φ = 5.308 ); the last value corresponds to the bias during the measurement pulse (see below). The qubit levels | 0 and | 1 are, respectively, the ground and the first excited levels in the left well.... Solid lines: log-log contour plots for the values of the error (switching) probability P s = 0.01 , 0.1, and 0.3 on the plane of relaxation time T 1 (in ns) and coupling capacitance C x (in fF) in the quantum model for (a) N l 2 = 5 and (b) N l 2 = 10 . The corresponding results for C x , T T 1 in the classical models are shown by the dashed lines (actual potential model) and the dotted lines [oscillator model, Eq. ( bound1)]. The numerical data are represented by the points, connected by lines as guides for the eye. The scale at the right corresponds to the operation frequency of the two-qubit imaginary-swap quantum gate.... 3.17 in the absence of dissipation in the second qubit ( T 1 ' = ∞ ) for N l 2 = 5 and 10, while T 1 = 25 ns. (In this subsection we take into account the mass renormalization m → m ' ' explicitly, even though this does not lead to a noticeable change of results.) A comparison of Figs.  f4(a) and f7 shows that in both models the qubit energy remains small before a sharp increase in energy. However, there are significant differences due to account of anharmonicity: (a) The sharp energy increase occurs earlier than in the oscillator model (the position of short-time energy maximum is shifted approximately from 3 ns to 2 ns); (b) The excitation of the qubit may be to a much lower energy than for the oscillator; (c) After the sharp increase, the energy occasionally undergoes noticeable upward (as well as downward) jumps, which may overshoot the initial energy maximum; (d) The model now explicitly describes the qubit escape (switching) to the right well [Figs.  f7(b) and f7(c)]; in contrast to the oscillator model, the escape may happen much later than initial energy increase; for example, in Fig.  f7(b) the escape happens at t ≃ 44 ns ≫ t c ≃ 2.1 ns.
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• The QND character of the qubit measurement is studied by repeating the measurement. A perfect QND setup guarantees identical outcomes for the two repeated measurement with certainty. In order to fully characterize the properties of the measurement, we can initialize the qubit in the state | 0 , then rotate the qubit by applying a pulse of duration τ 1 before the first measurement and a second pulse of duration τ 2 between the first and the second measurement. The conditional probability to detect the qubit in the states s and s ' is expected to be independent of the first pulse, and to show sinusoidal oscillation with amplitude 1 in τ 2 . Deviations from this expectation witness a deviation from a perfect QND measurement. The sequence of qubit pulses and oscillator driving is depicted in Fig.  Fig1b). The conditional probability P 0 | 0 to detect the qubit in the state "0" twice in sequence is plotted versus τ 1 and τ 2 in Fig.  Fig1c) for Δ = 0 , and in Fig.  Fig1d) for Δ / ϵ = 0.1 . We anticipate here that a dependence on τ 1 is visible when the qubit undergoes a flip in the first rotation. Such a dependence is due to the imperfections of the mapping between the qubit state and the oscillator state, and is present also in the case Δ = 0 . The effect of the non-QND term Δ σ X results in an overall reduction of P 0 | 0 .... (Color online) Conditional probability to obtain a) s ' = s = 1 , b) s ' = - s = 1 , c) s ' = - s = - 1 , and d) s ' = s = - 1 for the case Δ t = Δ / ϵ = 0.1 and T 1 = 10 ~ n s , when rotating the qubit around the y axis before the first measurement for a time τ 1 and between the first and the second measurement for a time τ 2 , starting with the qubit in the state | 0 0 | . Correction in Δ t are up to second order. The harmonic oscillator is driven at resonance with the bare harmonic frequency and a strong driving together with a strong damping of the oscillator are assumed, with f / 2 π = 20 ~ G H z and κ / 2 π = 1.5 ~ G H z . Fig6... In Fig.  Fig5 we plot the second order correction to the probability to obtain "1" having prepared the qubit in the initial state ρ 0 = | 0 0 | , corresponding to F 2 t , for Δ t = Δ / ϵ = 0.1 . We choose to plot only the deviation from the unperturbed probability because we want to highlight the contribution to spin-flip purely due to tunneling in the qubit Hamiltonian. In fact most of the contribution to spin-flip arises from the unperturbed probability, as it is clear from Fig.  Fig3. Around the two qubit-shifted frequencies, the probability has a two-peak structure whose characteristics come entirely from the behavior of the phase ψ around the resonances Δ ω ≈ ± g . We note that the tunneling term can be responsible for a probability correction up to ∼ 4 % around the qubit-shifted frequency.... We now investigate whether it is possible to identify the contribution of different mechanisms that generate deviations from a perfect QND measurement. In Fig.  Fig7 we study separately the effect of qubit relaxation and qubit tunneling on the conditional probability P 0 | 0 . In Fig.  Fig7 a) we set Δ = 0 and T 1 = ∞ . The main feature appearing is a sudden change of the conditional probability P → 1 - P when the qubit is flipped in the first rotation. This is due to imperfection in the mapping between the qubit state and the state of the harmonic oscillator, already at the level of a single measurement. The inclusion of a phenomenological qubit relaxation time T 1 = 2 ~ n s , intentionally chosen very short, yields a strong damping of the oscillation along τ 2 and washes out the response change when the qubit is flipped during the first rotation. This is shown in Fig.  Fig7 b). The manifestation of the non-QND term comes as a global reduction of the visibility of the oscillations, as clearly shown in Fig.  Fig7 c).... (Color online) Comparison of the deviations from QND behavior originating from different mechanisms. Conditional probability P 0 | 0 versus qubit driving time τ 1 and τ 2 starting with the qubit in the state | 0 0 | , for a) Δ = 0 and T 1 = ∞ , b) Δ = 0 and T 1 = 2 ~ n s , and c) Δ = 0.1 ~ ϵ and T 1 = ∞ . The oscillator driving amplitude is f / 2 π = 20 ~ G H z and a damping rate κ / 2 π = 1.5 ~ G H z is assumed. Fig7... For driving at resonance with the bare harmonic oscillator frequency ω h o , the state of the qubit is encoded in the phase of the signal, with φ 1 = - φ 0 , and the amplitude of the signal is actually reduced, as also shown in Fig.  Fig3 for Δ ω = 0 . When matching one of the two frequencies ω i the qubit state is encoded in the amplitude of the signal, as also clearly shown in Fig.  Fig3 for Δ ω = ± g . Driving away from resonance can give rise to significant deviation from 0 and 1 to the outcome probability, therefore resulting in an imprecise mapping between qubit state and measurement outcomes and a weak qubit measurement.... (Color online) Schematic description of the single measurement procedure. In the bottom panel the coherent states | α 0 and | α 1 , associated with the qubit states | 0 and | 1 , are represented for illustrative purposes by a contour line in the phase space at HWHM of their Wigner distributions, defined as W α α * = 2 / π 2 exp 2 | α | 2 ∫ d β - β | ρ | β exp β α * - β * α . The corresponding Gaussian probability distributions of width σ centered about the qubit-dependent "position" x s are shown in the top panel. Fig2... The combined effect of the quantum fluctuations of the oscillator together with the tunneling between the qubit states is therefore responsible for deviation from a perfect QND behavior, although a major role is played, as expected, by the non-QND tunneling term. Such a conclusion pertains to a model in which the qubit QND measurement is studied in the regime of strong projective qubit measurement and qubit relaxation is taken into account only phenomenologically. We compared the conditional probabilities plotted in Fig.  Fig6 and Fig.  Fig7 directly to Fig. 4 in Ref. [... (Color online) a) Schematics of the 4-Josephson junction superconducting flux qubit surrounded by a SQUID. b) Measurement scheme: b1) two short pulses at frequency ϵ 2 + Δ 2 , before and between two measurements prepare the qubit in a generic state. Here, ϵ and Δ represent the energy difference and the tunneling amplitude between the two qubit states. b2) Two pulses of amplitude f and duration τ 1 = τ 2 = 0.1 ~ n s drive the harmonic oscillator to a qubit-dependent state. c) Perfect QND: conditional probability P 0 | 0 for Δ = 0 to detect the qubit in the state "0" vs driving time τ 1 and τ 2 , at Rabi frequency of 1 ~ G H z . The oscillator driving amplitude is chosen to be f / 2 π = 50 ~ G H z and the damping rate κ / 2 π = 1 ~ G H z . d) Conditional probability P 0 | 0 for Δ / ϵ = 0.1 , f / 2 π = 20 ~ G H z , κ / 2 π = 1.5 ~ G H z . A phenomenological qubit relaxation time T 1 = 10 ~ n s is assumed. Fig1
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