Forward testing effect and its mechanisms in children's route learning
Description
This work examines interpolated testing’s effects on children's learning of new route information. A total of 209 first- (N=61; Mage= 6.97 years; 33 boys) third-(N=68; Mage=9.24 years; 37 boys), and fifth-grade (N=75; Mage =11.35 years; 41 boys) children were randomly assigned to either an experimental group with interpolated testing (“Test” group) or a control group without interpolated testing (“Restudy” group). The results showed that interpolated testing for routes 1–3 enhanced children's learning of route 4 (new route information) compared with the Restudy condition. Moreover, interpolated testing enhanced fifth-grade children’s memory retention of route 4 by reducing proactive interference (PI) and mind wandering (MW). In contrast, the testing effect on third-grade children was more related to a reduction in MW, rather than inhibiting PI to promote route 4 learning. The findings revealed the distinct mechanisms of the forward testing effect in route learning at different developmental stages. The data were processed using SPSS 26.0. A 3 (Age Group: first grade, third grade, fifth grade) × 2 (Interim task: test, restudy) analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a main effect of age on Route 4 interim test recall. 3 × 4 analysis of variances (ANOVA) with the within subjects factor of Route (1, 2, 3, 4) and the between-subjects factor of Age Group (first grade, third grade, fifth grade) .The results indicated that a reduction in MW plays a stable role in the FTE in route learning for first-, third-, and fifth-grade children. The research findings also revealed that in third-grade children, the recall accuracy for route 4 was negatively correlated with MW and PI. However, the results of the mediation analysis showed that only MW played a mediating role. In the context of recalling route 4, children in the Test group exhibited significantly lower levels of MW than those in the Restudy group. This suggests that interpolated testing reduces children's MW and improves subsequent learning by maintaining their attention. Throughout the entire learning process, MW scores decreased significantly in the Test group in subsequent learning stages except for the first grade. Thus, the FTE in route learning among third-grade children is more likely driven by a reduction in MW. In contrast, for fifth-grade children, apart from the recall accuracy for route 4 being negatively correlated with MW scores and PI, the results of the mediation analysis indicated that both PI and MW act as mediating factors. No significant difference was found in the indirect effects of the two mediating variables, with MW scores being slightly higher than the reduction in PI. This suggests that in spatial route learning for fifth-grade children, both the reduction in PI and MW may collectively drive the FTE.